Ancient 'Napalm-like Substance' Wreaks Havoc on Byzantium's Adversaries - Byzantine adversaries met their doom through the use of the ancient equivalent of Napalm, a devastating weapons system.
Byzantine Empire's Deadly Secret: The "Ancient Napalm" That Outlasted Rome
- Reported by Gernot Kramper
- Approx. Reading Time: 5 minutes
The Roman Empire's military power was built on its disciplined legions and intricate battle maneuvers. Less well-known is that the Byzantine Empire, the eastern part of the Roman Empire now known as Istanbul, held a superior weapon that enabled it to endure the fall of the West for over a millennium. The countless adversaries threatening Byzantium's dwindling territory were kept at bay by a type of "ancient napalm" — Greek Fire.
The formula for this lethal concoction was the most closely guarded imperial secret, passed from emperor to emperor until the empire's fall in 1453. Since the empire's collapse, the specific recipe has remained elusive, despite efforts by modern scientists and historians to reproduce it by testing various combinations of oil, saltpeter, and resins. Although some combinations exhibit properties such as self-ignition and water resistance, the exact formula continues to be a mystery. Archaeological discoveries of fire-projecting devices in Constantinople offer further clues, yet they are not conclusive.
The Unforeseen Power of "Ancient Napalm"
Fire weapons were not unusual in warfare — fire arrows, pots, and bundles soaked in fat or oil were employed against fortifications or rolled onto enemy lines. Greek Fire, however, set itself apart due to its self-ignition and water resistance. These attributes made it particularly effective at sea. In many ways, Greek Fire resembled today's napalm. Its destructive capacity and flame emissions were akin to the apocalypse, leaving conventional warfare in its wake.
Greek Fire was not solely a physical weapon; it was also psychological. Enemy armies and fleets were thrown into chaos by the sight of the devastating flames and the deafening hiss. Byzantines capitalized on this fear, presenting the weapon as divine retribution, instilling in enemies the belief they were fighting an otherworldly force.
The emergence of Greek Fire coincided with a new crisis for the empire during the reign of Constantine IV Pogonatus (668-685). Faced with the challenge of Arab warriors who had conquered the empire's eastern territories after the prophet's death, the wonder weapon came at a crucial time. The chronicler Theophanes Confessor records: "At this time, Kallinikos, an architect from Heliopolis in Syria, invented the liquid fire that set the ships of the Arabs ablaze and burned them along with their crew." Emperor Constantine Porphyrogennetos confirms in his work De Administrando Imperio: "Kallinikos, who invented the liquid fire, brought it to Byzantium to present it to the emperor." Later legends claimed that an angel had given Constantine the Great the original recipe from heaven.
The Workings of Greek Fire
The substance spontaneously ignited upon exposure to air and adhered to everything it touched — wood, skin — burning itself through until the material ignited on its own. Even sea waves turned into raging infernos. Hides or tarpaulins soaked in vinegar or stale urine offered some protection. Thus, Greek Fire was a powerful naval weapon, reliably setting flammable targets ablaze. Emperor Leo VI describes in his military handbook Taktika: "The liquid fire, thrown through siphons, should be used on enemy ships to burn them, as it burns even on water."
The material was stored in pots and hurled or catapulted. On ships, it was sprayed using a mysterious device known as a siphon. This fire hose, a masterpiece of Byzantine engineering, consisted of a bronze tube connected to a bellows or pump to build pressure. A small oven heated the substance before it was expelled through the tube. The construction of the siphon remained a secret, but contemporary reports suggest a combination of metalwork and advanced mechanics that were revolutionary for the time. With a pumping motion, the incendiary was then ejected in bursts from the tube, producing a fire jet of dozens of meters in length that bent through the air.
Greek Fire's Legacy in popular culture and history
A decisive use of Greek Fire took place during the first Arab siege of Constantinople (674-678). The Byzantine fleet destroyed the attacking Arab navy by setting their ships ablaze, saving the city from capture in the second siege (717-718). The small Byzantine fire ships turned into raging, fire-breathing dragons.
Anna Komnene describes a later use under Emperor Alexios I in her work Alexias: "And the fire that was to be directed against the enemy flowed through the mouths of the beasts in pipes, so that it seemed as if the lions and other monsters were spitting fire." The effect was so impressive that it inspired the series "Game of Thrones." The green-glowing "Wildfire" that decimates an entire fleet in the Battle of Blackwater is inspired by Greek Fire.
In addition to Game of Thrones, Greek Fire has influenced other works, such as historical novels or video games, where the mystical weapon serves as a symbol of Byzantine power. In popular culture, it remains a symbol of invincible technology and secrecy.
Although Greek Fire no longer exists today, its legacy lives on in modern incendiary weapons and flamethrowers. The Byzantines employed portable tubes that functioned like flamethrowers, driving enemies into chaos with a mixture of fear and panic.
Several theories have been proposed on the composition of Greek Fire. While the precise composition remains unknown, it is believed to have been a petroleum-based mixture. Some speculate that it might have included naphtha, sulfur, pitch, charcoal, and saltpeter. Despite acquiring the materials and equipment, enemies never succeeded in reproducing the original formula. Similar recipes were later employed by Arabs and Crusaders, but none matched the original's efficacy. Byzantine emperors only deployed it in dire emergencies to preserve its secret. For 800 years, it safeguarded the city's walls — until a new superweapon emerged.
Upon capturing Constantinople, Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II introduced heavy siege cannons with a range far surpassing that of the deadly fire. The superior range of Ottoman cannons, along with the development of armored ships and altered naval tactics, contributed to the decline of Greek Fire's importance. While it dominated fleets in the early Middle Ages, new technologies and the increasing availability of gunpowder ultimately brought an end to the reign of this mysterious weapon.
Sources: STMU History Media, National Interest
- Napalm
- Byzantine Empire
- Constantinople
- Other mixtures of resins, including naphtha and pitch, may have been components of the mysterious Byzantine weapon known as Greek Fire, which was similar to modern-day napalm in terms of its destructive capacity and flame emissions.
- In the science field, researchers have attempted to reproduce the formula for Greek Fire by testing various combinations of oil, saltpeter, and resins, yet the exact composition continues to be a mystery.
- The use of Greek Fire in the Byzantine Empire during the Middle Ages, especially in the context of sea warfare and space-and-astronomy (naval battles), demonstrates the application of early technology in both entertainment (Game of Thrones) and military strategy, showing how technology can have a significant impact on medical-conditions (outcomes of battles) and sports (military supremacy).
